Title: | Prototype Object-Based Programming |
---|---|
Description: | An object oriented system using object-based, also called prototype-based, rather than class-based object oriented ideas. |
Authors: | Hadley Wickham [cre], Gabor Grothendieck [aut], Louis Kates [aut], Thomas Petzoldt [aut] |
Maintainer: | Hadley Wickham <[email protected]> |
License: | GPL-2 |
Version: | 1.0.0.9000 |
Built: | 2024-10-05 05:57:03 UTC |
Source: | https://github.com/hadley/proto |
Object-oriented programming with the prototype model. "proto"
facilitates object-oriented programming using an approach that emphasizes
objects rather than classes (although it is powerful enough to readily
represent classes too).
cat("parent\n") oop <- proto(x = 10, view = function(.) paste("this is a:", .$x)) oop$ls() oop$view() cat("override view in parent\n") ooc1 <- oop$proto(view = function(.) paste("this is a: ***", .$x, "***")) ooc1$view() cat("override x in parent\n") ooc2 <- oop$proto(x = 20) ooc2$view()
cat("parent\n") oop <- proto(x = 10, view = function(.) paste("this is a:", .$x)) oop$ls() oop$view() cat("override view in parent\n") ooc1 <- oop$proto(view = function(.) paste("this is a: ***", .$x, "***")) ooc1$view() cat("override x in parent\n") ooc2 <- oop$proto(x = 20) ooc2$view()
proto
creates or modifies objects of the proto object oriented
system.
proto(. = parent.env(envir), expr = { }, envir = new.env(parent = parent.frame()), ..., funEnvir = envir) as.proto(x, ...) ## S3 method for class 'environment' as.proto(x, ...) ## S3 method for class 'proto' as.proto(x, ...) ## S3 method for class 'list' as.proto(x, envir, parent, all.names = FALSE, ..., funEnvir = envir, SELECT = function(x) TRUE) is.proto(x)
proto(. = parent.env(envir), expr = { }, envir = new.env(parent = parent.frame()), ..., funEnvir = envir) as.proto(x, ...) ## S3 method for class 'environment' as.proto(x, ...) ## S3 method for class 'proto' as.proto(x, ...) ## S3 method for class 'list' as.proto(x, envir, parent, all.names = FALSE, ..., funEnvir = envir, SELECT = function(x) TRUE) is.proto(x)
. |
the parent object of the new object. May be a proto object or an environment. |
expr |
a series of statements enclosed in braces that define the variables and methods of the object. Empty braces, the default, may be used if there are no variables or methods to add at this time. |
envir |
an existing prototype object or environment into which the
variables and methods defined in |
... |
for |
funEnvir |
the environment of methods passed via ... are
automatically set to this environment. Normally this argument is omitted,
defaulting to |
x |
a list. |
parent |
a prototype object or environment which is to be used as the
parent of the object. If |
all.names |
only names not starting with a dot are copied unless all.names is TRUE. |
SELECT |
a function which given an object returns |
list |
list whose components are an alternate way to specifying
arguments in place of |
The proto
class is an S3
subclass of the R environment
class. In particular this implies that proto
objects have single
inheritance and mutable state as all environments do. The proto
function creates and modifies objects of the proto
class. It (1)
sets the parent of codeenvir to parent
, (2) evaluates expr
in
the envir
environment and (3) lazily evaluates the arguments in
...{}
in the parent environment resetting the environment of any
functions (where the resetting is also done lazily). All such functions are
known as methods and should have the receiver object as their first
argument. Conventionally this is .
(i.e. a dot). Also .that
and .super
variables are added to the environment envir
.
These point to the object itself and its parent, respectively. Note that
proto
can be used as a method and overridden like any other method.
This allows objects to have object-specific versions of proto
. There
also exist that()
and super()
functions which have the same
purpose as .that
and .super
but do not rely on the
.that
and .super
. .that
, .super
, that()
and super()
can only be used within methods that have their object as
their environment. In addition that()
and super()
may only be
used within the top level of such methods ( and not within functions within
such methods).
as.proto
is a generic with methods for environments, proto objects
and lists.
as.proto.list
copies each component, el
, of the list x
into the the environment or proto object envir
for which
FUN(el)
is TRUE
. Components whose name begins with a dot,
.
, are not copied unless all.names
is TRUE
(and
FUN(el)
is TRUE
). The result is a proto object whose parent is
parent
. If envir
is omitted a new object is created through a
call to proto
with parent
and ...{}
as arguments. If
parent
is also omitted then the current environment is the parent.
Note that if parent
is a proto object with its own proto
method then the proto
method of the parent will override the one
described here in which case the functionality may differ.
$
can be used to access or set variables and methods in an object.
When $
is used for getting variables and methods, calls of the form
obj$v
search for v in obj
and if not found search upwards
through the ancestors of obj
until found unless the name v
begins with two dots ..
. In that case no upward search is done.
If meth
is a function then obj$meth
is an object of class
c("instantiatedProtoMethod", "function")
which is a proto
method with the first, i.e. proto slot, already filled in. It is normally
used in the context of a call to a method, e.g. obj$meth(x,y)
. There
also exists print.instantiatedProtoMethod
for printing such objects.
Be aware that an instantiated proto method is not the same as a proto
method. An instantiated proto method has its first argument filled (with
the receiver object) whereas the first argument of a proto method does not.
If it is desired to actually return the method as a value not in the context
of a call then use the form obj$with(meth)
or obj[[meth]]
which are similar to with(obj, meth)
except that the variation using
with
will search through ancestors while [[
will not search
through ancestors). The difference between obj$meth
and
obj$with(meth)
is that in the first case obj
implicitly
provides the first argument to the call so that obj$meth(x,y)
and
obj$with(meth)(obj,x,y)
are equivalent while in the case of
obj$with(meth)
the first argument is not automatically inserted.
$.proto
also has a multiple argument form. If three or more
arguments are present then they specify the arguments at which the
instantiated method is to be evaluated. In this form the receiver object
must be specified explicitly. This form can be used in situations where the
highest speed is required such as in the inner loops of computations.
The forms .that$meth
and .super$meth
are special and should
only be used within methods. .that
refers to the object in which the
current method is located and .super
refers to the parent of
.that
. In both cases the receiver object must be specified as the
first argument – the receiver is not automatically inserted as with other
usages of $
.
$
can be used to set variables and methods in an object. No ancestors
are searched for the set form of $
. If the variable is the special
variable .super
then not only is the variable set but the object's
parent is set to .super
.
A with
method is available for proto
objects.
is.proto(p)
returns TRUE if p is a prototype object.
str.proto
is provided for inspecting proto
objects.
proto
and as.proto
all return proto objects.
proto methods can be used with environments but some care must be taken. Problems can be avoided by always using proto objects in these cases. This note discusses the pitfalls of using environments for those cases where such interfacing is needed.
If e
is an environment then e$x
will only search for x
in e
and no further whereas if e
were a proto object its
ancestors will be searched as well. For example, if the parent of a
proto
object is an environment
but not itself a proto
object then .super$x
references in the methods of that object will
only look as far as the parent.
Also note that the form e$meth(...)
when used with an environment
will not automatically insert e
as the first argument and so
environments can only be used with methods by using the more verbose
e$meth(e, ...)
. Even then it is not exactly equivalent since
meth
will only be looked up in e
but not its ancestors. To get
precise equivalence write the even more verbose with(e, meth)(e,
...)
.
If the user has a proto object obj
which is a child of the global
environment and whose methods use .super
then .super
will
refer to an environment, not a proto object (unless the global environment
is coerced to a proto object) and therefore be faced with the search
situation discussed above. One solution is to create an empty root object
between the global environment and obj
as in this diagram Root
<- obj$.super <- proto(.GlobalEnv)
where Root
is the root object.
Now .super
references will reference Root
, which is a proto
object so search will occur as expected. proto
does not provide such
a root object automatically but the user can create one easily, if desired.
Although not recommended, it possible to coerce the global environment to a
proto object by issuing the command as.proto(.GlobalEnv)
. This will
effectively make the global environment a proto root object but has the
potential to break other software, although the authors have not actually
found any software that it breaks.
oo <- proto(expr = { x = c(10, 20, 15, 19, 17) location = function(.) mean(.$x) # 1st arg is object rms = function(.) sqrt(mean((.$x - .$location())^2)) bias = function(., b) .$x <- .$x + b }) debug(oo$with(rms)) # cannot use oo$rms to pass method as a value undebug(oo$with(rms)) # cannot use oo$rms to pass method as a value oo2 <- oo$proto( location = function(.) median(.$x) ) oo2$rms() # note that first argument is omitted. oo2$ls() # list components of oo2 oo2$as.list() # contents of oo2 as a list oo2 # oo2 itself oo2$parent.env() # same oo2$parent.env()$as.list() # contents of parent of oo2 oo2$print() oo2$ls() oo2$str() oo3 <- oo2 oo2$identical(oo3) oo2$identical(oo) # start off with Root to avoid problem cited in Note Root <- proto() oop <- Root$proto(a = 1, incr = function(.) .$a <- .$a+1) ooc <- oop$proto(a = 3) # ooc is child of oop but with a=3 ooc$incr() ooc$a # 4 # same but proto overridden to force a to be specified oop$proto <- function(., a) { .super$proto(., a=a) } ## Not run: ooc2 <- oop$proto() # Error. Argument "a" is missing, with no default. ## End(Not run) ooc2 <- oop$proto(a = 10) ooc2$incr() ooc2$a # 11 # use of with to eliminate having to write .$a o2 <- proto(a = 1, incr = function(.) with(., a <- a+1)) o2c <- as.proto(o2$as.list()) # o2c is a clone of o2 o2d <- o2$proto() # o2d is a child of o2 o2$a <- 2 o2c$a # a not changed by assignment in line above o2d$a # a is changed since a not found in o2d so found in o2 p <- proto(a = 0, incr = function(., x) .$a <- .$a + x) pc <- p$proto(a = 100) p$incr(7) p$incr(x=7) p$a
oo <- proto(expr = { x = c(10, 20, 15, 19, 17) location = function(.) mean(.$x) # 1st arg is object rms = function(.) sqrt(mean((.$x - .$location())^2)) bias = function(., b) .$x <- .$x + b }) debug(oo$with(rms)) # cannot use oo$rms to pass method as a value undebug(oo$with(rms)) # cannot use oo$rms to pass method as a value oo2 <- oo$proto( location = function(.) median(.$x) ) oo2$rms() # note that first argument is omitted. oo2$ls() # list components of oo2 oo2$as.list() # contents of oo2 as a list oo2 # oo2 itself oo2$parent.env() # same oo2$parent.env()$as.list() # contents of parent of oo2 oo2$print() oo2$ls() oo2$str() oo3 <- oo2 oo2$identical(oo3) oo2$identical(oo) # start off with Root to avoid problem cited in Note Root <- proto() oop <- Root$proto(a = 1, incr = function(.) .$a <- .$a+1) ooc <- oop$proto(a = 3) # ooc is child of oop but with a=3 ooc$incr() ooc$a # 4 # same but proto overridden to force a to be specified oop$proto <- function(., a) { .super$proto(., a=a) } ## Not run: ooc2 <- oop$proto() # Error. Argument "a" is missing, with no default. ## End(Not run) ooc2 <- oop$proto(a = 10) ooc2$incr() ooc2$a # 11 # use of with to eliminate having to write .$a o2 <- proto(a = 1, incr = function(.) with(., a <- a+1)) o2c <- as.proto(o2$as.list()) # o2c is a clone of o2 o2d <- o2$proto() # o2d is a child of o2 o2$a <- 2 o2c$a # a not changed by assignment in line above o2d$a # a is changed since a not found in o2d so found in o2 p <- proto(a = 0, incr = function(., x) .$a <- .$a + x) pc <- p$proto(a = 100) p$incr(7) p$incr(x=7) p$a